    
Overviews
THE EIGHTIES: A
DECADE IN REVIEW
THE WESTERN
THOUGHT PROJECT
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
STATE-OF-THE-ART
1990/1991
I
In
Quest of an
Islamic Perspective
"Islamic
Anthropology in Words and
Meanings," and
"Consonance,
Concepts and
Context," Knowing
One Another: Shaping an
Islamic Anthropology,
Merryl Wyn Davies.
Motherhood
in Islam by Aliah
Schleifer
Family
Life in Islam, Fatima
Hereen
The
Family Structure in
Islam, Hammudah Abd
al'Ati
Family
Life in Islam, Khurshid
Ahmad
"The
Sources of Islamic
Law," and "A
Legal Methodology for
Reform," in Women in
Muslim Family Law, John
Esposito.
Woman
in the Qur'an: The
Absence of Sex-Role
Stereotyping in the Text
by Amina Wadud-Muhsin
The
Women Question: Some
Theoretical Perspectives
on a Theme, Mona Abul
Fadl**
"Some
Basic Islamic Legal
Ideas" in Islamic
Jurisprudence: An
International Perspective C.G.Weeramantry (New
York: St. Martin's Press,
1988) Ch.5**
In the articles surveyed
in this collection, Aliah Schleifer, Khurshid
Ahmad, Fatima Heeren and
Hammudah Abd al'Ati all
look at the family in
Islam. Schleifer's
analysis focuses on the
intimate relationship
between mother and child
while Ahmad and Heeren
focus on the family as a
system. Abdel-Ati takes a
methodological approach
to the family taking into
consideration the impact
of normative and
historical developments
and those legal and
social institutions which
have had influence on the
formation and nature of
the family. These
articles help to present
a picture of Islamic
anthropology and the
place of family and women
therein. John Esposito
takes up the issue of
Islamic jurisprudence and
its role in the future of
reform and Islam's
ability to incorporate
change.
The
objective of this paper
is to give an
anthropological
understanding of how
Islam understands women
in the context of the
family, society and the
community where faith is
the cornerstone of all
interaction. Some
background in the role of
the Qur'an and other
sources of Islamic law is
necessary to this
objective. This paper
will introduce the Qur'an
and the idea of Qur'anic
methodology as a basis
for scholarly study,
discuss some basic
Qur'anic concepts and
relate them to
anthropology, outline the
general parameters of the
family structure and
purpose and examine the
different influences upon
the development of the
Islamic family including
the impact of law on its
formation.
Before
continuing with the
objective of this essay,
it is important to
preface the subsequent
discussion with some
comments about the
current state of affairs
in addressing the woman
question in the Islamic
context within Western
scholarship. Before the
Western reader can become
familiar with the
classical Islamic sources
and apply them to
understanding women in
Muslim societies, one
must become as familiar
with the assumptions and
sources of Western
scholarship on the same
topic. This involves
study of the differences
and similarities of the
two, Western and Islamic,
theoretical perspectives
on themes like gender,
the family, society and
the nature of man.
The
Centrality of the Qur'an
to Islamic Scholarship
Muslim
scholars have a top to
bottom methodological
approach to anthropology
and the role of women and
men in society. Rather
than go the field and
build up a body of
concepts through
observation, the Muslim
scholar goes first to the
sources of Islamic
knowledge to build a
framework: the Holy Qur'an, the Sunnah and
possibly Fiqh and
classical Islamic
literature. The Muslim
scholar begins at the
beginning so to speak,
with the sociological and
anthropological framework
outlined in the Qur'an
and uses this as a
paradigm for reference
and the continued study
of man in society. We may
call this the Qur'anic
method.
Like
other methodologies in
social science, the
Qur'anic method is
arrayed with different
opinions and approaches.
While there is consensus
that the Qur'an is the
word of God and that all
understandings of
anthropology and
sociology must be
inspired and guided by
this source, there is
diversity and dissent as
to how this should be
achieved. Some argue that
the truth in the Qur'an
will be distorted and
influenced by the
experiences of the
reader. This argument
states that understanding
is relative in terms of
the readers historical
context, culture and
position in life. Some
argue that the secondary
body of literature
developed to understand
the Qur'anic message has
become more important
than the Qur'an itself in
the study of social
sciences. There is also
disagreement as to
whether the intention for
mankind in the Qur'an is
to follow exactly the
text in a literal sense
or adapt its general
principles and belief
system to a variety of
cultural settings.
What
unifies Muslim scholars
is the belief that the
use of reason in all
activity must be
accompanied by divine
guidance in the form of
the Qur'an, and that all
activity must be led by
ethical motivations. One
does not have to be a
Muslim to uncover and
study the Qur'anic view
of man in society. If one
wants to understand those
societies which claim to
be Muslim, one must,
however, come to terms
with the general concepts
and social framework
outlined in the Qur'an.
This is a prerequisite
for the study of Muslim
societies because there
is an intimate link and
durable connection
between Muslim societies'
understanding of the
Qur'an and the way these
societies are organized
at each level of
interaction in both the
public and private
realms.
Qur'anic
Concepts as a Basis for
Islamic Anthropology
It is
possible to look at some
basic and general
Qur'anic concepts and
then to see more
specifically, how some
Muslim scholars have read
the Qur'an to gain
insight into women in
society. In looking at
women in society from the
Qur'anic view, we must
move away from the
Western concept of the
"self" to the
Qur'anic concept of
"relationship"
which stems from the
notion of tawhid under
which all Qur'anic
concepts fall.
One of
the ways that Western
scholars have studied
women and the family in
Islam is through the
discipline of
anthropology. In the
article, "Islamic
Anthropology in Words and
Meanings," the
author, Merryl Wynn
Davies, offers some
general principles in
which one can ground the
Qur'anic world view and
apply them to
anthropology. A central
concept in the Qur'an is
the unity of God and the
universe which spreads
metaphorically in the
Qur'an to all aspects of
human life and nature.
This unity includes both
Muslims and non-Muslims.
Creation is not random
but is purposeful so that
each part of the whole
has a direction and all
parts of the whole are
interconnected and
interrelated. The
Qur'anic notion of unity
can be related to the
notion of consonance.
Merryl Wynn Davies
describes the aim of
Islamic anthropology to
be "understanding
the nature, conditions,
meaning and implications
of consonance in the
study of all mankind in
their communal
existence."
Diversity
does not contradict
consonance. Islamic
anthropology sees
diversity as part of the
natural order. Contrary
to Western anthropology,
there is no concept in
Islamic anthropology of
the "other"
because Islam is
universal and holistic in
its understanding in such
a way that communities
cannot be viewed in
isolation or within the
limits of a single
system. Davies states
that, "the arguments
in Western anthropology
about boundary formation
and maintenance, most
particularly about the
difficulty in recognizing
and defining them in
study, we take as an
indication of the
limitation of their
definition of society as
a bounded systemic
whole." Islamic
anthropology is
interested in the study
of community to the
extent that it is one of
moral purpose where every
action has a moral and
ethical dimension. It
sees action as reflecting
a belief system.
Complexity is part of and
central to the Islamic
notion of unity. The
Islamic anthropologist
seeks to "explore
how a community functions
as a system that
facilitates the
harmonious embodiment of
moral values as a
constructive environment
for right action, or
hinders or deforms the
purposeful intent of
moral values within a way
of life and therefore
impairs the ability or
opportunity for right
action."
The
idea, according to
Davies, that
understanding of the
complexity of systems
involves moral dilemmas
is a peculiarly western
syndrome. The more that
is understood in western
scholarship the harder it
becomes to make value
judgments. The more
aspects to an
individual's action in
community, the more
difficult it has become
for the western student
of human society to
advance opinions, or to
feel he or she has the
right to judge. Nowhere
is this syndrome more
clearly demonstrated than
in relativist Western
anthropology. Essentially
this is a predicament,
explains Davies, because
it allows one to identify
problems but not resolve
them. Such a problems has
arisen because Western
scholarship has shunned
comprehensive
explanations that
integrate complexity or
integrate the observer
with the observed in a
shared frame of reference
that allows for
evaluative judgement.
Explanations in Western
social science are based
on moral neutrality, and
inevitably generate moral
inertia in the
application of knowledge.
What exactly, is the
Islamic anthropologist
looking for in the
organization of human
society?
The
Islamic anthropologist,
according to Davies, is
interested in questioning
how the size, scope,
technical repertoire,
system of beliefs,
processes of social
organization, systems of
authority, economic
organization and
relationship to the
physical environment
operate as a coherent
moral structure for the
fulfillment of values
that are the purpose and
challenge of all human
existence. No concept of
"primitive"
exists in Islamic
anthropology, the only
community which may be
called primitive is that
one which prevents right
action. Islamic
anthropology is therefore
not relativistic, but
recognizes universal
principles is the
organization of human
society.
Davies
looks at a number of
Qur'anic concepts which
can be developed and
applied to anthropology.
One of the most important
concepts in understanding
what Islam means by
community is the
relationship between the
Self and Other where the
Other is seen as an
extension of the Self and
not a severed separate
entity. While the Qur'an
does acknowledge the
concept of the 'self' in
the term nafs, it
is closely linked to the
term zawj which
means 'pair.' All of
humanity if viewed in the
Qur'an as one family or
existing in a state of
kinship. Men and women
are equal in their origin
and identity and in their
duties in the purpose of
creation. Relationships
have a definite social,
moral and spiritual
purpose as well as
biological one of
reproduction. Creation is
not a closed loop, it is
continual and ever
unfolding, but it is not
in a state of anarchy and
directionlessness.
Creation is governed by
the relationship between
God and man's creative
and intellectual
activity. Man must
continually re-integrate
what he learns and
creates with
God-consciousness if what
he accomplishes is to
have any meaning to the
process of creation and
human existence. The
unity of God from which
stems the
interrelatedness of all
things is called Tawhid.
Other
Qur'anic concepts this
author deems important
are: fitrah, khilafah and din. These are all
vital to understanding
man in the context of
anthropology. The fitrah, through the
potentialities of sense,
reason, intuition and
spiritual awareness, is
an instrument of
discernment between right
and wrong, between true
and false, its highest
dimension is the
discernment of the
existence of the unity of
God. By the activation of fitrah, man is
able to enjoy his status
as khilafah on
earth. Khilafah is
enjoyed by all men and
women as they are the
recipients of God's
covenant and trust to use
their time on this earth
with God's purpose always
in mind to the best of
their abilities. Khilafah can be conveyed in
the terms guardianship,
stewardship or usufruct.
The faculties of the fitrah are the means to be
employed so that the
status and role of khilafah may be enjoyed.
Din is the practice of
religion in the widest
possible sense. Din, "this
mode of living extends
the scope of existence,
gives positive benefits
and reinforces
constructive gains for
humanity, not as
abstract, purely
spiritual matters but as
powerful, pragmatic
social, cultural,
ecological, scientific
and technical
intellectual referents.
Diversity, our
relationship with others
should reflect the
consonance of our
existence. In the Islamic
frame of reference, there
can be no society which
is the negative of a
Muslim one, there can
only be categories of
analysis distinctive in
the nature and substance
of their diversity,"
according to the author.
Davies'
contribution relating
Qur'anic concepts to
anthropology lays the
general framework and
matrix of principles with
which one may proceed to
examine in more detail,
the Qur'anic view of
women and the family. It
was stated at the
beginning of this essay
that one must keep in
mind the idea of
'relationship' rather
than that of the 'self'
in studying the
methodology and world
view of scholars
influenced by the
Qur'anic message and
social paradigm. To
understand the role of
the individual in an
Islamic society, one can
look to the Qur'an which
gives clear instruction
much less to individuals
than it does to
individuals in relation
to others be they family
members, the extended
community, non-Muslims or
mankind. Khurshid Ahmad,
Fatima Heeren, Hammuda
Abdel-Ati and Aliah
Schleifer all discuss
family structure in
Islam. According to
Khurshid Ahmad, Islam
makes faith and religion
the basis of the entire
human society and the
main spring for the
network of its
relationships. It is in
this context that the
family should be
understood.
Ideal,
Historical and Legal
Notions: Impact on the
Islamic Family
Hammudah
Abd al Ati, the author of The Family Structure
in Islam, carefully
discusses a number of
influences on the
development of the Muslim
family in practice and
attempts to outline a
suggested methodology
when studying the family.
He claims that in looking
at Islamic history, a
number of factors have
influenced the family
including pre-Islamic
social practice and the
religiously inspired law
and social conditions
which developed under the
conditions of the first
four centuries of Islam.
Abdel Ati deals with the
formative institutions of
that time and
acknowledges the part
played by human choice in
applying Islamic
principles to daily life.
Abdel
Ati finds that two
schools influence the
study and methodology of
the family in Islam: the
normative-moralistic
school and the
sociological-anthropological
school - he finds both
inadequate. These lead to
a confusion over what
ought to be and what is
blurring any distinction
between the ideological
and the behavioral. He
warns readers that the
behavioral approach has
not given enough
attention to the
underlying religious
moral principles. Muslim
scholars, according to
Abdel Ati, tend to
dismiss the behavioral
aspects of the family as
aberrations and Western
scholars tend to
concentrate entirely on
behavioral aspects in
ignorance of normative
ideals. Abdel Ati's study
places the family in the
general context of
Islamic law, religion and
society. He limits the
temporal context to the
first four centuries of
Islam and the founders of
Muslim society.
Ati
gives great importance to
Islamic law in the
formation of the family
and goes as far as to
call the legal system of
Islam its greatest
achievement. The creation
of Islamic law was
crucial to Muslim society
formation. Law encouraged
unity and provided a
moral and social fabric
which kept communities
stable despite flux.
Islamic
law is comprised of
Shariah and of Fiqh.
Often the two are
confused. The difference
between the two is in
their basis of authority:
Shariah is guidance given
by God regarding all of
man's activities and
relationships. According
to the classical view, it
is the basis for the
moral judgment of right
and wrong and thus comes
from God. Fiqh is
constitutes a body of
laws which regulates all
aspects of public and
private life. It is a
product of human
knowledge and
intelligence and effort
to understand and apply
the principles inherent
in the Shariah.
John
Esposito in his book Women
in Muslim Family Law
discusses the sources of
Islamic law and points
out that the Qur'an is
not a law book but gives
general guidelines for
moral conduct. In the
context of time it was
revealed, it tried to
strengthen the family
with guidance about
marriage, divorce and
inheritance. The Qur'an
is the most authoritative
source in Islamic law.
The
second source of Islamic
law is the Sunnah (saying
and deeds) of the Prophet
Mohammed during his life
time and as the leader of
the Islamic community. It
was decided by Islamic
scholars that these could
be used a source of law.
Prophetic words and deeds
were collected and
recorded through a very
meticulous process of
collection. Not all
hadiths are of equal
value; value depends on
who reported them on the
credibility of the
reporter. They also must
be checked against the
Qur'an to see if they
contradict it in any way.
The hadiths that carry
the most weight in legal
situation are those
deemed 'authentic,'
others may be classified
as good or weak.
Qiyas
is a form of personal
reasoning or
interpretation. Qiyas
permit a judge to rule
one case by finding
similar attributes in the
case to be judged with a
previous one. This allows
him to rule based on
precedent. Ijma is by
classical definition the
unanimous agreement of
the jurists of a
particular age on a
specific issue. Ijma
derived its authority as
a source of law from the
hadith that records the
Prophet as saying,
"My Community will
never agree on an
error." One of the
most important events in
the development of
Islamic law still
affecting Islamic
societies today took
place in the 10th
century. Esposito
describes this event in
the following excerpt
which represents the
closing of ijtihad (independent
reasoning) as a source of
law and the strict
observance of taqlid:
"Due
to a number of factors,
the interaction of these
sources and the continued
dynamism of legal
development after the
tenth century were
stifled. A series of
events were to gradually
stop this creative
process: the closing of
the door of ijtihad.
Growing political
fragmentation and decay,
assimilated customs
contrary to the Qur'anic
spirit, and finally the
Mongol invasions of the
13th century all played a
part in the halting of
creative legal activity.
In the 10th century, a
majority of legal
scholars determined that
the law was complete.
Jurists were instructed
to imitate (taqlid) the
established authoritative
doctrine of the law
schools. Declining moral
standards that especially
affected women were
larger harems, concubines
and veiling and seclusion
practices."
Esposito's
work gives an idea of the
origins and sources of
Islamic law. A general
discussion of the
normative Islamic family
will give additional
background to the
challenge of reform in
Islam in which women are
often at the center.
Expectations
of the Islamic Family
Structure
The
family is expected to
serve society as a
social, moral and
economic unit. This is
clear in Qur'anic
injunctions on marriage,
divorce and inheritance.
It is through the
institution of marriage
that the human race
continues and marriage
represents a contract of
mutual obligations and
responsibility. Faith is
the bedrock of the
family. The family in
Islam has very real
social and economic
functions and objectives.
When the rest of society
may be in flux, the
family is intended to
provide a stable and life
lasting institution for
its members. Khurshid
writes that the family
has the following main
functions: 1) the
preservation and
continuation of the human
race, 2) the protection
of morals, 3) the
encouragement of
psycho-emotional
stability through love
and kindness, 4) it
provides social and
values orientation, 5) it
provides social and
economic security for all
its members, 6) the
widening of horizons
through marriage and the
creation of social
cohesion in society, and
7) a training ground for
developing the motivation
for effort and sacrifice.
It is the Islamic view
that within the family,
men and women can bring
out their best in a
spirit of love,
compassion and sacrifice.
The
guidance in the Qur'an on
family matters helped to
spawn a legal tradition
which holds the family
accountable as a system
of economic as well as
social security. The
family is required to
provide for children and
the elderly as well as
the poor and unemployed.
The responsibilities of
the male in marriage
should encourage him to
improve and enrich
himself which helps in
overall social progress.
The family is designed
after the principles and
requirements in the Qur'an, to free women of
extra burdens so that
they may devote
themselves to the moral
and physical growth of
their children. In the
spiritual, practical and
social aspects, the roles
of men and women are
intended to be
complimentary rather than
competitive and based on
faith and the recognition
of their roles as God's
vicegerents on earth.
Fatima Heeren points out
that no "isms"
have been able to uproot
what has been implanted
in human nature in the
form of the family and
that no other institution
has evolved which can
shoulder similar
responsibilities as well
as the family.
Mother
as the Cornerstone of
Family; Family as the
Cornerstone of Society
On the
subject of women, the
role in the Qur'anic
society which receives
the highest regard and
respect is that of the
role of mother. Her role
as childbearer and
nurturer entitles her to
a status in society which
is not enjoyed to the
same degree as men. Yet
the mother is viewed not
in isolation but in
relationship to the child
and especially in the
child's duties to the
mother which are life
long and enduring. Aliyah
Schleifer describes the
mother from the point of
view of the reverence and
good treatment due the
mother from the child and
the perspective of the
mother towards the child.
Like
all Muslim scholars,
Schleifer uses the Qur'an
as basis for her
understanding of
motherhood as well as the
Hadith and Fiqh and
Islamic literature. Her
approach is to take
excerpts directly from
the Qur'an and the Hadith
and to draw together
their main themes and the
portrait of motherhood in
society which emerges
from them. She seeks to
"elucidate the
actual bases in Islam for
the concept of
motherhood. Rather than
making comparisons with
alien concepts, Islam is
left to speak for
itself." The sources
used by the author are:
the Qur'an where all
passages referring to the
mother are excerpted, the tafasir of At-Tabari, Al-Qurtubi and Ibn Kathir
which provide an overview
of classical exegeses
which include fiqh
representing the schools
of opinion existing at
that time and juridical
rulings.
In the
order of human
relationships, that of a
Muslim to his parents is
held in highest accord.
Because of her effort and
sacrifice, the mother is
seen as the strongest
member of the family in
kindness and devoutness.
Giving thanks to one's
parents is the same as
giving thanks to God. In
matters of support and
finance, mother's come
first for children and
this includes mothers who
are Christian, Jewish or
polytheists. The Hadith
asks that children of
elderly parents remember
how they were cared for
when they were helpless
and how patient their
mothers were with them.
Good treatment of parents
is viewed as a right on
the part of the parent
and a duty on the part of
the child. It is not an
act of charity. The
author also discusses the
right of inheritance for
mothers.
As for
the children, there are
limits to obedience as
the first duty is to God.
Children should not
follow their parents into
polytheism for example or
into those acts which are
clearly against God's
will or from carrying out
his or her duties as a
Muslim. If a Muslim
mother encourages faith
fulfillment of
responsibilities to God
then there is no limit to
the obedience owed to the
mother by the child.
From
the Islamic point of
view, marriage is the
desired state of affairs
for men and women because
the family is seen as
central to the health of
the individual and
society. The difficulty
and sacrifice of
childbirth gives women a
special opportunity to
serve God. The act of
birth gives the woman
respect and death in
childbirth is the same a
dying in the battlefield
for the cause of God. For
every ounce of effort be
it physical, emotional or
mental, the mother is
elevated in the eyes of
her family and society
and gains a successful
place for herself in the
hereafter. Women should
not let their families
interfere with their
religious duties because
that would be replacing
the family with God. The
author also discusses the
rights of the mother in
case of divorce. Usually
the courts deem it
necessary and in the best
interests of the children
to leave them with their
mother until they are of
seven years at which time
they are free to choose
which parent they would
prefer to stay with.
The
conclusion of the author
regarding motherhood in
Islam is that the mother
is seen within a natural
order of relationships
which are hierarchical
and exist to keep order
in this life. Muslim men
are given strong council
throughout the Qur'an to
treat their wives and
children equally.
In the
Islamic view, all
relationships are
interdependent between
the family, the
community, the nation and
the universe. This social
notion of
interrelatedness stems
from the concept of the
unity of God (tawhid).
All human beings are
envisioned as coming from
one source. God's
creation requires that
men and women live in
community and not in
isolation as independent
'selves.' Islamic history
is full of women who have
pursued careers as
scholars, merchants,
craftswomen, soldiers-but
no role is as worthy as
that of mother. Any
woman, no matter her
economic or intellectual
means, is free to marry
and pursue motherhood. It
is, according to the
author, a special vehicle
given to her by God where
she may attain respect in
this life and reward in
the Hereafter.
Reflections
on Islamic Law and the
Qur'anic Method in Reform
In the
contemporary setting
facing Muslims and
Islamic communities world
wide, the challenge of
modern times is to place
change and reform for
women and the family
within an Islamic
framework. Any such change
would have to include,
according to Esposito, an
Islamic rationale and
whose result would
demonstrate a link of
continuity between change
and past tradition.
Islamic jurisprudence,
the legal principles and
methods underlying the
reforms must play a key
role since it alone can
insure both inner
consistency and
historical continuity
between tradition and
change. At the center of
the debate for reform is
the doctrine of taqlid.
Taqlid came into practice
after the 10th century
when jurists were no
longer permitted to use
independent reasoning.
Few social forces or
individuals challenged taqlid.
Esposito
explains that reform
oriented philosophies are
centered around the
notion that the Qur'an is
concerned with ethical
and religious values but
that it can support
modern legal structures
and thus meet the needs
of modern times. Because
in the past the Qur'an
was used to raise the
social and economic
position of women in
society, they believe the
same to be true today.
Traditional
interpretations of the
Qur'an which place women
in an inequitable
position today are in
contradiction with the
Qur'anic message of
equality among believers
as the reformers
understand it. At the
heart of reform where
women and the family is
concerned is re-opening
of ijtihad or individual
reasoning and creativity
in applying Qur'anic
principles to the demands
of modern life. The
methodological approach
to the Qur'an by Amina
Wadud-Muhsin provides an
example of a contemporary
perspective sex
stereotyping in the Qur'an.
Amina
Wadud-Muhsin argues in
her work, The
Absence of Sex-Role
Stereotyping in the Qur'an,
that there is a complete
absence of sex-role
stereotyping in the
Qur'an itself. In looking
at non-gender
stereotyping in the Qur'an, the author makes
more general statements
about the Qur'anic
message to both men and
women as a universal
message for all. She
looks at what the Qur'an does not say
about male female
relationships and
develops her own
methodology and reading
of the Qur'an to come to
her particular
conclusions.
According
to Muhsin, the Qur'an
neither attempts to
annihilate the difference
between men and women nor
to erase gender
distinctions which help
every society to run
smoothly and to fulfill
its purpose. The Qur'an
does not assign roles to
genders and remains
neutral on such issues as
male dominated marriages,
economic hierarchy and
the division of labor
within the family. The
Qur'an asks individuals
to behave in morally
responsible ways, but
functions are up to the
individuals concerned.
To
support the argument that
the Qur'an does not
assign gender specific
roles, she gives an
overview of the lives of
specific female
individuals to whom the
Qur'an has referred and
she suggests that: 1) the
roles these female
characters fulfill are
usually specific and not
intended as models for
all women, 2) those
characteristics which
they demonstrate as
exemplary are intended
for men as well as for
women. The roles the
Qur'an does mention women
in fall into three
categories: 1) a role
which represents the
social, cultural and
historical context in
which the individual
woman lived without
support or condemnation
from the text, 2) a role
which fulfills a
universal female function
to which exceptions can
be made without removing
it from the acceptable
functions for women and
3) a role which fulfills
a non-gender specific
function.
She
argues that the Qur'an
had to be in a human
language and that being
in Arabic, it had to use
gender specific
terminology and therefore
perceptions of its
message are influenced by
the reader's own
perceptions of language.
She then sees sex-role
stereotyping by the
readers of the Qur'an as
partially a linguistic
problem of trying to
place a divine message
into a human language.
Because
the Qur'an has been used
to impose sex role
stereotyping in some
societies, the thrust of
the author's thesis is to
disarm those who would
use the Qur'an for this
purpose. While her
arguments are based on
the notion that the
Qur'an is intended as a
universal message for all
and the that God clearly
holds men and women
equally responsible for
their own actions, it is
Muhsin's methodological
explanations and
approaches to the Holy
Book that are most
interesting. She claims
that while the Qur'anic
message is timeless, it
also had to have great
appeal to a specific
historical community in
the Arabian peninsula. It
may describe a heavenly
paradise that sees more
intended for men than for
women, but this might
have been the case
because in a patriarchal
society, it was the men
that would have to be
persuaded and encouraged
to accept Islam as a way
of life for Islam to
survive.
Part of
the problem with
sex-stereotyping and the
Qur'an is also that
non-Islamic ideas and
sources are often applied
to the Qur'an to
understand it, explains Muhsin.
This author
argues that meaning in
the Qur'an must be
developed from the
Qur'an's unique internal
matrix and that this
information must be taken
in the perspective of the
Qur'an as a force in
history, politics,
language and culture and
as a divine text.
Personal
interpretation of the Qur'an, literature on the
Qur'an, and the literal
emulation /imitation of
the original Muslim
community are barriers to
understanding the overall
message, according to Muhsin.
The
author concludes that
every reader of the
Qur'an is influenced and
affected by his or her
attitudes, experiences
and perceptions of
language. Social
functions and the values
attributed to them, will
be used to support
misogynist
interpretations.
Furthermore, looking to
Qur'anic literature
should not be the
ultimate goal in
understanding the Qur'an.
Attempts to understand
the literature on the
Qur'an risks eclipsing
understanding of the
Qur'an itself. She calls
those interpretations of
the Qur'an which require
slavish imitation of the
original community unjust
and narrow. It is the
principles of justice,
equity, harmony and
spiritual growth which
should be extracted as
lessons from the
experience of the
original community which
are important. Muhsin
maintains that no
community can be a
duplicate of the original
Muslim community.
As for
women, the Qur'an does
not command women to
fulfill a specific role -
nor are women and men
isolated in the
commandments concerning
most social and religious
functions. It does not
set roles for Muslim
women across every
culture and continent. It
is not prescriptive in
this sense and leaves
gender distinctions and
distinct gender functions
to the perceptions of
morally appropriate
behavior in a given
society at a given time.
Decisions in the family,
for example, should not
be based on gender
assignment but on what is
mutually beneficial to
the entire family. She
does not see the Qur'anic
injunction that men are
responsible for women as
a sign that God prefers
men to women, but rather
as a guarantee of a
woman's right to bear and
raise children so that
she is not burdened with
additional
responsibilities which
might jeopardize her main
responsibility of
motherhood. Nor does the
Qur'an condone violence
against women. In a
stormy marital situation,
it recommends first
verbal action then
separation and then the
use of physical reprimand
only as a last resort. Even there, there
is question as to who is authorized to carry this measure of last resort..
(It is by no means conclusive that the addressee here is the husband:
indeed there is good reason to understand the authority of last resort is the
senior-most member in the family to which the wife belongs: her parents,
grand parents, or a person of standing and status: that could suppose a woman,
as well as a man!) -- Besides, a situation of 'last resort' is one where the
family or community in question is
threatened by extreme
disorder.
The
articles in this
collection cover Islamic
anthropology, the
normative family
structure in Islam, the
historical development of
the family and the role
of women in the community
of faith. The articles
also show a strong
relationship between the
family's development and
welfare and Islamic
jurisprudence. The future
of the family and women
will depend on the
methodologies used by
Islamic fiqh and shariah
scholars and the degree
of their commitment to
the methodologies of
ijtihad and taqlid
respectively.
    
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